Introduction:
The capability for language (physical and mental) is physiological and lies in many of our genes acting together. These genes evolved individually for other reasons and came together, one assumes fortuitously rather than by design, to make language possible. Nevertheless our hominin ancestors only discovered they had this ability when, as need prescribed, they tried to communicate. The capability was discovered but languages themselves were invented by humans. As with most inventions, language invention was also driven by necessity. In this case it was social needs in the shape of the desire and the need to cooperate. Humans invented languages to answer the need to communicate. There is no doubt that language helps thinking but it is equally obvious that a man alone on a deserted island would not have invented language just for the sake of his solitary thinking. The driver for the invention was the need to communicate, not the need to think. So my contention is that the social desire/need to cooperate is what uniquely distinguished/distinguishes the human species. The discovery of language ability and the invention of languages was an evolutionary step change which lifted this distinction to an unprecedented level. But it didn’t stop there. An immensely powerful feedback loop was established when language aided thought which, in turn, enriched language. A virtuous spiral was born which has now been in place for some 200,000 years and continues. One apparent evolutionary weakness is that the language-thinking advances can only be passed on culturally and cannot be passed on (as far as we can tell) to new generations through our genes. So there is a risk of cultural discontinuity (as with the abrupt end of a civilization for example). I suspect that many such cultural discontinuities have occurred and manifested as Dark Ages which followed the end of some advanced civilizations. As, for example, after the heights of the Egyptian and Roman civilizations.
When were languages invented?
While there is no direct fossil evidence of language, the indirect evidence suggests that our ancestors from 200,000 years ago (most likely homo sapiens but possibly even Neanderthals) had language.
- Brain Development: The human brain, particularly the areas associated with language, had undergone significant development by the time modern humans (homo sapiens) appeared some 200,000 years ago. This suggests that the species had the cognitive capacity for language at that time. It is not impossible that Neanderthals and perhaps even some later descendant of homo erectus also had the cognitive ability.
- Social Complexity: Archaeological evidence indicates that early humans lived in complex social groups, which would have required effective cooperation and communication. The need and practice of social cooperation reached an unprecedented level with homo sapiens and possibly also with Neanderthals. It is most likely that social cooperation began with group hunting and group defense.
- Symbolic Behavior: By 200,000 years ago humans engaged in tool making and some symbolism must have been required. Complex symbols in art are present, I estimate, by at least 70,000 years ago. The ability to construct abstract ideas and the need to communicate these also originate here. Again it seems that the capacity to use symbols was available to Neanderthals and sapiens.
- Genetic Evidence: Recent genetic studies have identified genes associated with language development that are present in modern humans and likely existed in our ancestors 200,000 years ago.
It seems that the ability to have language was present earlier than 200,000 years ago. From the discovery of the ability to the invention of a functional language was a major breakthrough and would have taken some time. Primitive spoken languages began probably around 200,000 years ago. There are other major steps to get from early sounds and gestures to sophisticated spoken languages and then to the invention of writing (possibly via art). The origin of written languages probably dates to the time of the earliest known cave paintings around 50 – 60,000 years ago.
Language is a tool for communication – not a lens
There is a philosophical argument (patently false but it keeps academics occupied) that language is a lens through which to view the world and that language determines reality. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (first proposed by Sapir in 1929) suggests that the structure of a language influences the way its speakers perceive and think about the world and that language is the lens through which the world is seen.
It is an academic hypothesis but it is more wishful thinking than based on empirical observation. I do not need language to observe the world but I do need language to describe what I observe. I need to describe the world because I wish to communicate. The idea of language primarily as a lens to view the world is fundamentally flawed. I find the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis unconvincing because the invention of a language – any language – must start with the need to communicate some aspect of reality. It is very plausible and even likely that this would have been to communicate some thing important for survival (e.g. Danger! Lion! Run! …..). Communication to cooperate was the human trademark. Whether for hunting or defense or building a settlement, the key was social cooperation enabled by communication.
Generally philosophers have – in their own winding ways – always returned to the idea of language being a communication tool rather than a lens to view reality. Chomsky’s theory of universal grammar suggests that humans possess an innate language faculty that allows us to acquire language with relative ease. The capability for language surely lies in our genes. But I am not so sure that grammar is also explicitly in our genes. But it could be so, since the software in our brains for what we consider logic and reason (and hence grammar) probably has dependence on our genes. Nevertheless, his theory implies that language is a tool that we use to represent the world, and where language and reality are interconnected, but that language does not determine reality. Wittgenstein flip-flopped (which professional philosophers are allowed to do). In his early work, he argued that language was a picture of the world and that the meaning of a sentence was determined by its relationship to the world. Not quite Sapir-Whorf but close. However, in his later work, Wittgenstein shifted his focus to the role of language in human life and activity. He found that the meaning of words is not fixed but is determined by their use in specific contexts. Thus language was actually more a tool for various tasks than he had previously thought.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis derives from the philosophy of cultural relativism where empirical observations of reality are taken to be subordinate to our cultural understanding of the world. It is speculation rather than based on observation. This is more a political position than a true hypothesis which can be falsified. Certainly language is intricately entwined with thinking. But we can think without language. As a species we thought long before the chimps separated from homo. However, when language is applied, thinking is transformed and thought is elevated from roiling, diffuse, emotional clouds to crisper, clearer, delineation of ideas. This clarity of thought feeds back into new developments of language to be able to describe the new ideas and the abstractions that emerge. New language leads to even more nuanced and complex thoughts and so on ad infinitum. This loop from language to thinking and back to language is probably the most powerful cultural feedback loop we have and is, I believe, a primary differentiator of humans from other animals.
It is language which provides a kind of digitization of the analogues of emotion. I look at the leaves of a tree in my garden and I can see more shades of green than I have words to describe. For my own contemplation of the tree I do not need to describe all the various shades of green or define any new words. Emotions and feelings and existing language will do. But if I wished to communicate some particular shade to someone else then I would use language to do so – either by inventing a new word or using other words as adjectives. It is my ability to discern many unnamed shades of green in the real world which demands the invention of new words. Reality is observed by my senses not through my language. I do not define a new colour and then go and find it in the real world. In any event it is reality which is reflected in language, not language which determines reality. The history of the evolution of words suggests that we invent new words as we observe or find new ideas – real or not – that we wish to communicate. The capability for language is physiology but languages are invented – always – for the purpose of communication.
We observe the world through our senses which both enable and restrict our observations. We use language to communicate what we observe. It was invented as a brush to paint the picture of what we observed and wished to communicate.. But language, we find, is a much more versatile tool than we set out to invent. It is not restricted to describe only the real world that we observe. As with any tool, we find language has many more uses than it was first designed for.
Language frees humans from the captivity of now
From describing immediate and surrounding reality in the now, language progresses to describing actions. In the development of any language, first comes the naming of real things (nouns) and then come the actions we need to communicate (verbs). First things (you, me the tree, the dog, the lion, the sky, …) and then what to do (run, hide, come, go, fight, …). It is only then we discover that language can even describe abstractions. Our minds are full of abstractions because of our ability to think not because we have language. Animals may remember the past and even take actions regarding the future but they do not, as far as we can tell, refer to past or future events. Language is what allows humans to address unreal events in the past and in the future. It is a short step from abstractions and unreal things to thoughts and imaginary things. That in turn led to the emergence of imagination and fantasy which provided the creative impetus for human development.
While language can influence our thinking, it does not determine it. Language allows us to explore concepts and experiences that may not be directly observable or verifiable, such as the past, the future, and fictional worlds. It is language which allows us to describe the abstract the unreal and the imaginary. The past and the future and all other things which do not exist cannot be observed but can be described. Thus language allows and enables all that human imagination and fantasy can conjure up. In reality, the real world itself is merely a tiny sub-set of what language can describe. Language’s ability to describe non-existent things, such as the past, future, and fiction, is an unlooked for facet of language that emerged from the initial need for communication. The ability of language to deal with the unreal and the imagined was a discovery not an invention.
It is language which makes it possible to lie. (The evolution of lying can also be traced back to the survival need for deception and thence the use of language to create and communicate falsehoods). Language is a tool invented primarily for communication rather than for thinking. But the feedback loop between language and thinking has allowed the species to take off. Language allows us to paint and communicate not only our view of the real world but even our thoughts. Language is that which has enabled and empowered social groups and cooperation among humans.
The power of language lies in its ability to transcend the boundaries of direct experience and explore the realm of imagination. Language is not confined to reality. It could be argued that imagination, fantasy and creativity are enabled by language. Rather than language being a lens through which to view reality, the real need to communicate is what enabled language and freed humankind from the captivity of reality and the shackles of now.
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